jason carr M.A. Comprehensive Exam Question for S. Reinhardt. Trace the "ritual process" in early modern Europe from the Protestant Reformation to the French Revolution. In your essay, be sure to do the following: --define the ritual revolution that occurred with the Reformation --describe how government can be regarded as a ritual process --describe how the French monarchy was "desacralized" in the eighteenth century --examine the uses of ritual during the French Revolution Conclude by discussing whether you believe rituals are present in today's world. define the ritual revolution that occurred with the Reformation The Reformation was not confined to theory, not limited to theses nailed to cathedral doors. The actual ritual practice of the laity was in contention and souls (so went the thinking) were at stake. Pre-reformation ritual was primarily a receptive, visual, emotional experience: such theatric display as the elevation of the host in the Eucharist was of extreme importance. Visually-perceived icons provided meditative or devotional focus. The Reformation radically changed the ritual experience from a receptive event to an interactive, interpretive, and 'rational' event that depended heavily on the discretion and internal condition of the celebrant. Vernacular translations of the Bible, literal whitewashing of sacred interior, and radical re-evaluation of the sacraments marked a transition from presentational ritual language ("this is my body") to a representational ritual language ("this represents my body") and required an internal commitment on the part of the participant. describe how government can be regarded as a ritual process The escalating and self-conscious participation of the ritual celebrant finds a parallel in government rituals. Governmental rituals serve to represent both the various parts of the civic entity and the nature of the power relationships. In a ritualized (and thereby controlled and safe) setting the government can entertain a pressure-relieving attack on its position, or indicate to the unwashed masses, in a setting free of critical thinking, their role in the greater machinery. In this manner governmental ritual can serve as a socializing (or propandandizing) tool. Note however, that the relationship is reciprocal. In modern coronation ceremonies, for example, the coronation is a marker for the acceptance of the monarch by the people. The official rituals preserved the integrity of the state in the interregnum but the popular cheering and festivities subsequent to a coronation indicate the relief of tension caused by a leaderless, liminal condition. describe how the French monarchy was "desacralized" in the eighteenth century The sacred nature of the French monarchy was propped up by Catholic (or Gallican) dogma and a wispy tradition of Germanic sacred kings. The ritual revolution of the Reformation meant that the Catholic underpinnings were implicitly weakened if not explicitly collapsed. In addition, royal behaviors from Louis XIII's break with the popular understanding of the "king's two bodies" and expedient lit de justice, to Louis XIV's private (though heavily ritualized) court, and Louis XV's suffering of poor public opinion an would-be assassins, weakened the traditional ritual links between Frenchmen and their sacred king. An additional factor was the general de-Christianization of France under influence of anti-Christian Enlightenment philosophes. Separately, these underminings of the sacred monarchy might be thwarted. Together, and with no real corrective course of action by the monarchs themselves, they led to the desacralization of the French monarchy and the transfer of that sacerdotal nature to the citizen in his relationship to the new state. examin the uses of ritual during the French Revolution Mona Ozouf makes the above claim that the French Revolution used Revolutionary Festivals to preserve a semblance of order, and to transfer the sacerdotal nature from the monarchy to the citizens in their new political setting. Although Revolutionary Festivals were largely a failure (as in "they threw a party and nobody came") because of over-control and too-lofty goals, their very presence is interesting. It reveals that old rituals needed to be transformed not because they were ineffective but rather that they were extremely effective. Festivals and ritual served as a community-building activity and helped illustrate the existing political and power structures. Because of this efficacy, rationality and obedience to law could be promoted (in theory) by holding a festival such as that of Simoneau. This type of festival, reparatory and apologetic for the senseless killing of a civil leader, socialized the participants with the importance of law and order. A military presence hinted compliance was not optional, and minimized any tendency to violence that was implicit in post- Revolutionary festivals. The remaking of the calendar completely broke with previous practice. Since the old days and months did not exist, the old festivals were theoretically impossible. The saints literally did not have their days anymore. Time was measured from the beginning of the Revolutionary epoch rather than from the birth of Christ. In this way the de-Christianization of France melded with new civic ritual in a remarkable accomplishment of self- fashioning. Conclude by discussing whether you believe rituals are present in today's world. Ritual behaviors are not confined to the dark, superstitious past. If anything, current ritual behavior is even more irrational and emotive because its ritual nature cannot be admitted. The pejorative implications in the word "ritual" are an anathema to American's self-image. American ritual is therefore unnecessarily emotionally charged and expresses itself in guises as disparate as fanatic sports buffs to ultraviolent gang protocols. Our collective repression of our primitive desire for ritual has resulted in a particularly nasty sublimation. http://www.mousetrap.net/~mouse/uta/